Philoanalysis

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)

What to Expect

Focus: Philosophical Analysis and Emerging Social Philosophy

Competencies:

1.      Comprehend the various implications of good thinking and analytical skills to education

2.      Manifest knowledge of the nature of philosophical analysis and its processes as applied in the teaching profession.

3.      Evaluate the emerging Social Philosophy in terms of their implication to Education

Prepared by: Michael Molina Nael

PART 1: CONTENT UPDATE

Nature of Philosophy

Nominal meaning: love of wisdom. (It was derived from the Greek terms Philo, which means love, and Sophia, which means wisdom.)

Real meaning: The science and art of all things naturally knowable to man’s unaided powers in so far as these things are studied in their deepest causes and reasons. The human being’s attempt to think speculatively, reflectively, and systematically about the universe and the human relationship to the universe. It is the human being’s search for the ultimate explanations of the realities of life.

A.     Branches of Philosophy

            The search for truth started as a quest to understand the fundamental stuff of nature and to answer the various Philosophical questions which later on diverged into different fields of studies that were later called the branches of Philosophy. Some of these branches are the following:

1.      Metaphysics –the area of Philosophy that deals with the nature of being and reality

2.      Epistemology- Episteme ( knowledge) Logos (science) –This deals with human knowledge and the Criteria for truth

3.  Ethics- the study of the morality of Human Acts

4. Logic-the systematic treatment of relationship of ideas

5. Cosmology- theories of the nature and origin of the universe

6. Philosophy of Man/ Philosophy of human person-deals with the nature and purpose of man

7. Social and Political Philosophy- deals with the nature of society and socialization process.

8. Theodicy- the study of the nature, essence and existence of God using human reason

9. Aesthetics- the study of the nature and appreciation of beauty

10. Axiology- the area of Philosophy that specifically deals with the problem of human values

What is Philosophical Analysis? It is a process of breaking down philosophical ideas, questions and theories to their component parts in order to comprehend the nature of the parts in relation to other parts and to the whole It is the art of rationally investigating a phenomenon in order to have a deeper understanding of its nature and purpose using the strictest standard of logical, creative, strategic and critical thinking. The examination of thoughts, ideas, theories and principles in an attempt to determine their relevance, purpose and applicability to individual and societal situations. A tool in reviewing various points of view as to the meaning, purpose and nature of reality and human existence

           

Elements of Reasoning

The human beings’ reasoning processes, which are central to philosophy, to the teaching profession, and to all other sciences have the following elements:

·        All reasoning has a purpose

·        All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve some problems.

·        All reasoning is based on assumption.

·        All reasoning is done from some point of view.

·        All reasoning is based on data, information, and evidence.

·        All reasoning is express through, and shaped by concepts and ideas.

·        All reasoning contains inferences by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data.

·        All reasoning lead somewhere has implications and consequences.

Forms of Good Thinking

            The search for wisdom, principles, theories and explanations of the realities of life must involve good thinking skills of which analysis plays a vital part. Compared to ordinary thinking, good thinking skills better equip man to distinguish the true from seemingly true statements, from the reasonable to the unreasonable judgment, from the acceptable to the unacceptable inference (see table below)

              Good Thinking Compared to Ordinary Thinking

      Ordinary thinking                                                  Good thinking

·  Guessing                                                                       Estimating

·  Preferring                                                                       Evaluating

·  Grouping                                                                        Classifying

·  Believing                                                                        Assuming

·  Inferring                                                             Inferring Logically

·  Associating   Concepts                                       Grasping Principles

·  Supposing                                                                      Hypothesizing

·  Offering opinions without reasons                                   Reasoned opinions

·        Making Judgment with out criteria                                 Making Judgment with criteria  

                                                             

Analytical and Logical thinking involves also the development of other forms of good thinking such as:

1. Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is the employment of knowledge and skills to achieve the desired result or outcome and a means of evaluating the thinking processes of man. It is the development of a logical and systematic means of reasoning and a process that values suspended judgment based on the result of a logical search and the resolutions of problems which results into wise decisions and actions

 What is critical thinking?

·        It is a process that values suspended judgment based on the result of a logical search and the resolutions of problems which results into wise decisions and actions

·        It is the employment of knowledge and skills to achieve the desired result or outcome

·        It is a means of evaluating the thinking process

·        It is the development of a logical and systematic means of reasoning

2. Creative Thinking

Processes of Creative Thinking 1. Identification of Problem or Issue 2. Problem Investigation 3. Formulation of different solutions 4. Selection of the best solution

Creative thinking is the broadening of the mind’s capacity to create and formulate ideas, processes, experience things and solutions to problems. It is a form of thinking which examines and explores the many means, possibilities, alternatives and points of view of a particular issue. It is being sensitive to the opportunities to discover ideas, means that were not seen or discovered by others.

     

      3. Strategic Thinking

Strategic thinking is a systematic process of identifying and using different tactics or means to broaden the possibilities of attaining the desired situation in the future

Strategic thinking involves the following processes:

1.      Learning from previous experience in order to actualize a vision

2.      The interconnection of present situation, issue, interest and opportunities

3.      The formation of scenario in for the future and the identification of the means for its attainment

    Steps in Strategic Thinking

          1. Formulate a vision and be focused                   5. Build scenarios

          2. Examine the present situation or means            6. Use the identified strategy                

          3. Look for solutions or strategies                       7. Put into action the identified tasks then evaluate

          4. Prioritized

The American Philosophical Association proposed a set of thinking skills that have particular bearing on the teaching practice. These skills and their application to teaching practice are found on the table below.

              Thinking Skills Proposed by the American Philosophical Association

Skill	Description	Teaching practice application
Interpretation	Categorization Clarifying meaning	Be systematic in data collection. Look for patterns to categorize data. Clarify any data you are uncertain about
Analysis	Examining Ideas Analyzing arguments	Be open minded as you look at information about a student Do not make careless assumptions. Do the data reveal what you believe is true or are there other options
Evaluation	Assessing results Assessing arguments	Look at all situations objectively. Use criteria to determine results of teaching actions. Reflect on your own behavior
Inference	Examining evidence Speculating or conjecturing alternatives Making conclusion	Look at the meaning and significance of lessons. Are there relationships between lessons? Does the data help determine that a problem exists?
Explanation	Stating results Justifying procedures Presenting arguments	Support your findings and conclusion. Use knowledge to select strategies you use in teaching
Self-Regulation	Self-examination Self-correction	Reflect on your experiences. Identify in what way you can improve your own performance. What will make you feel that you have been successful

Instruction as an Instrument for Developing Thinking Skills

            Benjamin Bloom described the process of developing thinking skills applicable to student-teachers. He presented the following six levels of developing good thinking and these are:

Level 1: Basic Knowledge. Students gather facts and information on the problem under study.

·        Assessment: Simple recall questions and tests calling for the memory of facts and information.

Level 2: Comprehension:  Students must show evidence that they understand the facts and information

·        Assessment: Students restate in their own words, re-order ideas, predict consequences or make estimates.

Level 3: Application: Student applies facts and information to real life’s situations and lifelike problems.

·        Assessment: Administration of performance tests to find out how much of the learned knowledge is being applied to practical situation.

Level 4: Analysis: students break down the problem into parts, identify theories and principles involved, and interpret the relationship of problem parts or components to the whole, the problem, and formulate the principle that organizes the solution to the problem.

·        Assessment: Students make assumption behind their viewpoints to justify these. For the purposes of critical thinking, the teacher asks: Does the end justify the means? Why?

Level 5: Synthesis: Students briny together and collate ideas to form a theory, principle or concept, which is the act of thinking about something new from known facts.

·        Assessment: Questions are asked, requiring students to think and express themselves beyond present knowledge.

Level 6: Judgment.- when students create standards of judgment, examine, analyze and weigh issues before making conclusions.

·         Assessment: Questions are asked, requiring students to justify and present bases for their conclusions.

Higher Order Thinking Skills: An Application of Analytical and Logical Thinking

           

            Higher order thinking involves the following:

1.      Categorizing which is putting together ideas or items on the bests of perceived similarity. Classification, then moves on to categorization of the ideas or items.

2.      Concept formation, the process of forming a cognitive construct or concept by classifying and organizing information in order to establish an entity and determine which ideas or items do not belong to that entity.

3.      Deriving principles based on concrete concepts related in simple ways.

4.      Drawing conclusions. This is the act of making a summary judgment based on available information. Conclusions are derived from personal experiences.

5.      Making Generalization. Students project experiences from isolated cases to a broad category or group which may well apply to a wider range of groups and situations

Problem Solving and Decision-Making Skills

            The table below shows the comparison of problem solving method and scientific method.

Comparison of Steps in Problem Solving and the Scientific Method

Problem Solving	Copi and Cohen’s Seven Step Scientific Method
Encountering problem	The Problem
Collecting Data	Preliminary Hypothesis
Identifying Exact nature of problem	Collecting additional facts
Determining Plan of Action	Formulating Hypothesis
Carrying out the Plan	Deducing further consequences
Evaluating Plan in New Situation	Testing consequences
Plan of Action	Application

Future teachers need to develop analytical, problem-solving and decision-making skills so that they may perform their duties with utmost professionalism. The following are the steps in the analytical, decision-making and problem solving process:

1.      Defining the problem. The “what” aspect of the process; this pinpoints the problem, its locus, nature, manifestations and effects on the system.

2.      Identifying the roots, intermediate and immediate causes of the problem. This step dwells on the “why” aspect of the problem, where it started and “how” it affects people and order of things.

3.      Generating alternative solution to the problem. The “how” and “why” aspects of the problem call for thinking of viable solutions.

4.      Deliberating on the alternatives. Students discuss the possible consequence of  each alternative.

5.      Decision-Making. Choice of the most feasible solution is done after rationalizing the benefits that would accrue to the system.

6.      Implementation stage. The final decision is communicated to all sectors concerned for implementation.

7.      Feedback and realignment. Implementation within a set time frame is followed up to track the progress and determine the effectiveness of the decision made.

8.      Deliberation and rationalization are made to determine if realignment of the decision is needed.

Intellectual Attitudes Expected from teachers

Aside from decision-making and problem solving skills teachers must practice the following intellectual traits in order to maximize their intellectual potentials in the performance of their noble tasks.  Teachers must possess the following traits:

                

1.      Confidence. Having a feeling of hope on which one relies. Being in a state of trust and exhibiting reasonable reliance on others.

2.      Courage.  Having a consciousness of the need to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs or viewpoints toward which we have strong negative emotions and to which we have not given a serious hearing

3.      Creativity. Originality, ingenuity and resourcefulness in the performance of tasks

4.      Curiosity. Being inquisitive and expressing interest in one’s work. The eagerness to 

     Know

5. Discipline. The training of the mind and character so that one’s life will be in accordance with rules.
6. Empathy. Having a consciousness of the need to imaginatively put oneself in the place of others in order to genuinely understand them

7.      Fairness. The state of being just, equal and evenhanded

8.      Faith in Reason. Confidence that, in the long run, one’s own higher interest and those of humankind at large will be best served by giving the freest play to reason

9.      Humility. Having a consciousness of the limits of one’s knowledge, including sensitivity to circumstances in which one’s native egocentrism is likely to function self-deceptively

10.  Integrity. Recognition of the need to be true to one’s own thinking; to be consistent in the intellectual standards one applies

11.  Perseverance. Having a consciousness of the need to use intellectual insights and truths in spite of difficulties, obstacles, and frustrations; firm adherence to rational principles despite the irrational opposition of others.

12.  Responsibility. Being conscientious, accountable and dependable in the performance of tasks

13.   Risk taking. The courage to try reasonable alternatives in the face of danger or loss.

14.  Self-determination. Having self-autonomy and self –determination

Intellectual Standards for Teachers:

A human being must strive in his/her thinking/ reasoning processes to develop good thinking habits. This entails the use of the following intellectual standards. Thus teachers should be:

1.  ACCURATE. The standard of being correct, truthful and precise.
2.  ADEQUATE. The standard of sufficiency, ampleness and satisfactoriness in relation 

      to the  purpose.

3.  BROAD. Being extensive and expansive in one’s thought and being open to other  

      points of view.

4.       CLEAR. Having lucidity, simplicity and intelligibility in one’s thoughts.

5.  COMPLETE. The standard of fullness, wholeness and absoluteness.
6.  CONSISTENT. The unswerving, regularity, dependability and unfailing effort to   

       comprehend the truth and achieve the purpose.

7.  DEEP. The profundity, intensity and strength of one’s thinking.
8.  FAIR. Being just and reasonable in one’s dealing and thinking.
9.  LOGICAL: The correctness in the reasoning and thinking processes.
10.  PLAUSIBLE. When one’s thought is believable, credible, probable and conceivable.
11.  PRECISE.  The exactness, meticulousness and correctness of one’s thoughts.
12.  RELEVANT. The consideration of the significance, application and importance of

      one’s thoughts.

13.  SIGNIFICANT. The importance, noteworthiness and momentousness of one’s

      thoughts and actions.

14.  SPECIFIC. Being definite and explicit in one’s thinking processes.

.   

Enhancing the Reasoning Abilities of teacher- students and professionals

The following are the elements of thinking and the process by which teachers can enhance their reasoning abilities:

1.      All reasoning has a Purpose.

·      Teachers should take time to state their purpose clearly.

·      Teachers  must distinguish their purpose from related purpose.

·      Teachers  must check periodically to be sure they are on target.

·      Teachers  should choose significant and realistic purposes.

2.      All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some questions, to resolve some problems.

·      Teachers  must take time to clearly and precisely state the question at issue

·      Teachers  must express the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and scope.

·      Teachers  must break question and sub-questions.

·      Teachers must identify if the question has one right answer, is a matter of opinion, or requires reasoning from more than one point of view.

3.      All reasoning is based on assumption.

·   Teachers must clearly identify their assumptions and determine whether they are justifiable.

·   Teachers have to consider how their assumptions are shaping their point of view.

4.      All reasoning is done from some point of view.

·      Teachers have to identify their point of view.

·      Teachers should seek other points of view and identify their strengths as well as weaknesses.

·      Teachers should strive to be fair-minded in evaluating all points of view.

5.      All reasoning is based on data, information, and evidence.

·        Teachers must restrict their claims to those supported by the data that they have.

·        Teachers should search for information that opposes their position as well as information that support it.

·        Teachers must make sure that all information used is clear, accurate, and relevant to the question at issue.

·        Teachers must make sure they gathered sufficient information.

6.      All reasoning is express through, and shaped by concepts and ideas.

·      Teachers must identify key concepts and explain them clearly.

·      Teachers should consider alternative concepts or alternative definitions to concepts.

·      Teachers must make sure they are using concepts with care and precision.

7.      All reasoning contains inferences by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data.

·      Teachers must infer only what the evidence implies.

·      Teachers must check inferences for their consistency with each other.

·      Teachers must identify assumptions, which lead them to their inferences.

8.      All reasoning leads somewhere, has implications and consequences.

·      Teachers should trace the implications and consequences that follow from their reasoning.

·      Teachers should search for negative as well as positive implications.

·      Teachers must consider all possible consequences.

Thinking Skills Student-Teachers Must Develop

There are thinking skills that a teacher should learn to use well. Some of these are: 1) remembering; 2) translation; 3) interpretation; 4) analysis; 5) synthesis; 6) evaluation; and 7) application.

1. Remembering. Remembering is the lowest level of thinking.  This thought process includes the recall or recognition of information previously encountered, such as facts, concepts, or generalizations. A person’s knowledge consists of all the information he can remember. Although knowledge is used in the exercise of all the higher thought processes, questions that are designed to test only a person’s knowledge do not require any thinking ability beyond the level of remembering

2. Translation. The next level of thinking is translation, meaning transcoding or changing information from one form to another.

3. Interpretation. Interpretation is the thought process used in discovering relationships between two or more facts, concepts or generalizations. It is the kind of thinking a person uses when he makes comparisons or draws conclusions

4. Analysis.  Analysis is the thought process a person uses in determining how something is organized. Analysis is much like interpretation but one is more aware of the steps to follow to reach a solution to a problem. Analysis is used in all kinds of critical thinking and problem-solving.

5. Synthesis.  Synthesis is the thought process a person uses when he thinks imaginatively or creatively. It is the process of putting ideas or materials together to create a meaningful pattern or structure that did not previously exist.

6. Evaluation. Evaluation is the highest level of thinking. This thought process requires a person to use all the aforementioned processes. In order to evaluate any event, idea, or material object a person must have in mind standards against which he can make judgment.

7. Application. This thought process is a kind of thinking that applies what one learns in the classroom to one’s life outside school. Thus application requires the person to recognize similarities in the new problem or problems one has previously encountered and to select the method and the information that are most suitable for finding a solution.

The table below summarizes the relationship between Logic and the teaching process.

 It can be seen that teachers must exercise good thinking skills in the performance of their noble duties.

   Components of Good Thinking in the Teaching Profession

1. Specific knowledge base in Teaching

2. Experiences in Teaching

3. Logical & Critical competencies

General Analytical & Logical thinking competencies

Specific Analytical & Logical thinking competencies in classroom situations

Specific Logical & critical thinking competency in teaching

4. Attitudes for Logical & Critical thinking

a. Confidence                                       g.  Independence

b. Independence                                   h. Creativity

c. Fairness                                            i.  Curiosity

d. Responsibility                                   j.   Integrity

e. Risk taking                                        k.  Humility

f. Discipline

5. Standards for Logical & critical thinking

A-    Intellectual standards

1. Clear                                            8.   Logical

2. Precise                                         9.   Deep

3. Specific                                        10. Broad

4. Accuracy                                     11. Complete

5. Relevant                                       12. Significant

6. Plausible                                       13. Adequate (for purpose)

7. Consistent                                    14. Fair

B-    Professional Standards

1. Ethical standards for teachers

2. Criteria for evaluation

3. Professional responsibility

Analyzing the Elements and Structure of Arguments

            The examples above illustrate the different elements and structure of an argument. These are:

CLAIM: The proposition—sometimes a proposition for belief, sometimes a recommendation for action—put forward publicly for acceptance by the audience. Ex: the infection was carried by food-service equipment

GROUND(S): The specific fact(s) relied on to support a given claim. Ex. “Our tests ruled out everything else and we finally located a defect in the canteen washing equipment”

WARRANT: The principle, rule or general procedure on which the inference from ground to claim is based. Ex. A defective canteen washing equipment will have a high probability of transmitting infection

BACKING: The substantive factual support for the validity and applicability of the warrant. Ex. Facts from bacteriology and epidemiology.

Analyzing the Validity of Inference

Let us analyze how we arrived at sound inferences. To illustrate, let us consider the table below:

True Premises, False Conclusion
0.	Valid	Impossible: no valid argument can have true premises and a false conclusion.
1.	Invalid	All doctors are health workers. all nurses are health workers. Therefore, all doctors are nurses	No sequence. Undistributed middle term
True Premises, True Conclusion
2.	Valid	Nurses are health workers. Nightingale is a nurse. Therefore, Nightingale is a health worker.	Valid and sound
3.	Invalid	Doctors are health worker. Nightingale is a health worker. Therefore, Nightingale is a doctor.	No sequence. Undistributed middle term
False Premises, False Conclusion
4.	Valid	Nurses are surgeons. Surgeons are angels. Therefore, Angels are nurses.	Valid but unsound The major and minor premises are both false
5.	Invalid	Nurses are angels. Doctors are angels. Therefore, Doctors are nurses.	No sequence. Undistributed middle term
False Premises, True Conclusion
6.	Valid	Doctors are nurses. Nurses are surgeons. Therefore, surgeons are doctors.	Valid but unsound The major and minor premises are both false
7.	Invalid	Nurses are angels. Doctors are angels. Therefore, Doctors are Nurses.	No sequence. Undistributed middle term

The distinction between truth and validity is the fundamental distinction of formal logic. You cannot understand inference unless this distinction is clear and familiar to you.

The seven sample syllogisms above show the general principles of inferential thinking:

·         True premises do not guarantee validity. As proven by examples #1 and #3 in the table above.

·         A true conclusion does not guarantee validity. As proven by examples #3 and #7.

·         True premises and a true conclusion together do not guarantee validity. As proven by example #3.

·         Valid reasoning does not guarantee a true conclusion. As proven by example #4.

·         False premises do not guarantee invalidity. As proven by examples #4 and #6.

·         A false conclusion does not guarantee invalidity. As proven by example #4.

·         False premises and a false conclusion together do not guarantee invalidity. As proven by example #4.

·         Invalid reasoning does not guarantee a false conclusion. As proven by examples  #3 and #5.

Therefore, while the truth of propositions and the validity of reasoning are distinct, the relationship between them is not entirely straightforward. We cannot say that truth and validity are utterly independent because the impossibility of "case zero" (a valid argument with true premises and false conclusion) shows that one combination of truth-values is an absolute bar to validity. When an argument has true premises and a false conclusion, it must be invalid. In fact, this is how invalidity is defined..

Thus an argument is sound if (and only if) all its premises are true and its reasoning is valid; all others are unsound. It follows that all sound arguments have true conclusions.

The Validity and soundness of categorical syllogisms and of Hypothetical Syllogisms will be further discussed in the succeeding chapters.

Analyzing the Nature of Education

          Education is the total social processes that bring a person into life in a culture. It is the process of acquiring knowledge, habits, attitudes, skills, and abilities. It is the art of utilizing knowledge to make humans more humane. It is the sharing of wisdom.

           

The purpose of education is total human formation. The school system is tasked to be the catalyst of educative processes, which will bring about social, cultural, intellectual, economic, moral-spiritual and technological formation of students in order to develop them into productive members of society. The schools are challenged to provide quality education through an efficient, effective and logical educational delivery system because society expects the graduates to contribute to the attainment of society’s internal integration and external adaptation

        

Education is also perceived as an investment of human capital. The stakeholders of education expect a return of investments not only in terms of personal but societal benefits as well. The development of human resources who think correctly and reason rightly that will mobilize industries, produce goods and services and that will serve as the manpower of the nation in achieving its goals is the benefit that the stakeholders clamor for. Hence, educational managers are continually seeking for ways of getting the support of the members of the school’s social subsystem- the faculty, the staff and students- in order that the educative processes will produce the desired output optimally.

Shared philosophies, beliefs and values, which members have agreed upon to uphold and practice, weld the interrelationship among the members of the social subsystem. This interrelationship, guided by the school cultural subsystem and supported by the economic subsystem, determines the school’s ability, to face up to the challenge of providing quality education.

The interdependence, inter-relatedness, and continuing interactions of the three subsystems of an educational institution produce the output of education. However, among these three, the social subsystem charts the course of the educative processes and welds the most influence on the quality of the graduates.

The formation of individuals who will lead the social subsystem is, therefore, of utmost importance. Colleges of education are ever challenged to produce good educational managers and teachers who would significantly improve teaching and learning in order to bring about good education managers and teachers. Today’s educational managers, teachers, and staff members are continually undertaking various teacher-staff development programs to improve their thinking abilities and performance.

Society expects teachers to be well versed with emerging trends in education and various educational technologies. The UNESCO’s educational thrusts for the 21st century expects the teachers to help students develop the abilities of: 1. Learning to know, 2. Learning to be, 3. Learning to do, 4. Learning to live together. Teachers, therefore, must develop their critical, creative, strategic and logical thinking abilities so that they may become good models of learning to their students.

Analyzing Some Philosophical Thoughts with implications to Social Science

Four Main Kinds of Social & Political Philosophy Around Today.

1. Libertarianism (also called "classical liberalism" or just "liberalism"): emphasizes ‘negative’ rights,

i.e. the right not to have certain things done to you (be killed, robbed, etc.).

The role of government is to protect us from outside invaders and domestic criminals who would otherwise violate our rights, but otherwise to leave us alone.

The libertarianism described here is a pure or extreme version which does not necessarily conform precisely to the views of real-life libertarians, who are likely to make some concessions to the objections listed below.

   

Objections:

1. Libertarians would allow anything between consenting adults, at least in private, including drug use, prostitution, hard-core pornography, sodomy, flag burning, etc.  Is this too much liberty?

2. Libertarians would not interfere with the economy at all, so they would allow monopolies, for instance, and would totally scrap welfare, Medicaid, Medicare, etc. Would this be good for society?

3. Libertarians regard society as just a mass of individuals in the same place under the same government, ignoring common traditions, culture, religion, etc. Does this ignore the value of patriotism, community, etc.?

4. In a libertarian society, some people would end up with much more wealth than others, perhaps just by inheriting it. Is this fair?

5. In reality libertarianism as an impartial ideal of maximum freedom and justice seems to be a kind of fantasy.  We are all born into a world in which property is neither evenly distributed nor freely available.  This situation came about through history, in which piracy, imperialism, genocide, slavery, etc. have all had an important part.  No individual is free just to live their own life, since (for instance) there is no free land to farm.  We all depend on others (especially if we are poor or handicapped by low social status, low intelligence, unpopular ethnicity, or disability, etc.).  A government that adopts a completely laissez faire approach effectively sides with the pirates, slave-owners, etc. and their descendants.  

2. Socialism: the exact opposite of libertarianism. Values ‘positive’ rights, such as the right to

healthcare, food, shelter, work, etc., more than ‘negative’ rights. The economy would be run for the good of society as a whole. Very few people today are real socialists, but many agree with parts of this theory.

Objections:

1. Would this be efficient?

2. Is it fair to violate some people’s ‘negative’ rights to provide for the ‘positive’ rights of others?

3. Do so-called positive rights exist at all?

3. Liberalism (also called "modern liberalism"): a cross between libertarianism and socialism. Its most

famous I. "Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others."  [i.e. freedom and (negative) rights should be equal, and there should be as much freedom and opportunity as possible.]

"Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) reasonably expected to be to everyone's advantage, and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all." [i.e. all inequalities should be avoided if possible, unless they benefit everyone.]

Objections:

1. Is the best way to decide what justice requires imagining what people would agree to in certain fictional, indeed impossible, circumstances?

2. Would such people in fact agree to precisely the combination of freedom and equality that Rawls comes up with? 

3. Feminist philosopher Susan Moller Okin objects that Rawls says very little about gender issues. Women, though, must be included in any satisfactory theory of justice, she says.

Current gender injustices seriously undermine equality of opportunity. Furthermore, the family is where we learn our basic values, so the family must be just if society is to be just.

4. Communitarianism: a new (although it can be traced back to Aristotle) alternative to liberalism and 

libertarianism. Some communitarians are just moderate socialists, but others are nationalists or patriots.

Communitarians value tradition; ethnic, regional or national identity; and the common culture that comes from religion or shared moral values. They emphasize the importance of belonging to a certain community and sharing in its traditions, values and culture.

They think that libertarians and liberals over-emphasize the importance of the individual and stress that "no man is an island" and "it takes a village to raise a child."  Hegel can be thought of as a good example of this type of thinker.

Objections:

1. Even libertarians allow people the option of celebrating their heritage, culture, etc., but no-one should be forced to do so.

2. Emphasizing the community is often a cover for socialism or nationalism, which in turn lead to communism and fascism.

3. Communitarianism seems vague and more a reaction against libertarianism than a philosophy of its own.

Emerging Themes of Contemporary Social Philosophy

 

Contemporary Social Philosophical themes have direct bearing on education

1. Man as embodied spirit-This concept rejects the definition of man as a rational animal or a composite of body and soul. The problem with this definition is that it is dualistic and separates the single reality that is man into two realities; matter and spirit. Rationality is emphasized to the detriment of animality. Yet it is animality that defines man. Phenomenologist sees man as an embodied subjectivity- unique core or center, source, depth, wellspring of initiative and meaning. It involves the rational, the affective, the emotional - the total man.

Since education is the process of developing man-the embodied subjectivity, Development must be seen now as the total development of man. Education is not anymore seen as a conglomeration of disciplines with their own individual tasks of cultivating a specific part of man. Education should not look down upon material development as merely a steppingstone to rational or spiritual development but an essential part of it.

2.Man as a being in the world. Each embodied spirit is in his own world, which form a network of meanings, in and on and around which man organizes his life It is different from environment for this is only proper to animals. When we speak of man we speak of his world not environment for it is only man that gives meaning to an environment through intentionality of consciousness.

Social Sciences Education like to dwell on cumulative justice or injustice yet contemporary man is more aware of a complex world of social justice or injustice and of unjust structures. We should therefore address in the social sciences an awareness of unjust structures, of internal change that need to be situated, of the need to humanize the world we live in by our work.

3.  Man as Being-with: the interhuman and the socius. The world of man is not just a world of things but also the world of fellowmen. True education if it is to be different from propaganda is such an unfolding to bring out in the other, the student, a certain disposition of him to see for himself the true, the good and the beautiful. Society is not something that one enters into by contract to achieve some common end, as Rousseau and other social contract theorists put it. The social is within each man: man does not live in society, society lives in man. It is borne out of the historicity of man. Man carves a meaning from his past in view of some project in the future thus man is a cultural being. Thus social consciousness must have a bearing in the philosophy of education for education cannot just be based simply on ultimate ends, on absolute, eternal truths as the perrenialists put it. Neither can we be simply content with a general formulation of educational objective as preparing the student to become good citizen in a democracy, since the universal truth exists in the particular. Thus any Philosophy of education must be predicated on a clearly formulated conception of a way of life in a definite society as Isaac Berkson  says.

4. Man as a person and his crowning activity is love, which presupposes justice. The final aim of education, formal or informal is becoming a person. The individuality of man is one that he has become freely and consciously in time, in the world. This task consists in integration, in becoming whole and in the fundamental option to love. Thus we can no longer conceive of educational objectives in terms of personal development or self-realization with no end beyond itself. Education must include social aims for self-realization is no longer possible apart from socialization. Our educational policies must aim at specific personal and social values: of justice, love, and honesty. Total development is not just the education of the mind but also the heart, and we can educate the heart only by being exemplars of what we teach. The bearer of moral values is the person himself.

Other themes of Contemporary Philosophy

The task of man is man himself. All other tasks, responsibilities and obligations are simply to support man become the person he has the potential to become. Man is an embodied spirit and thus he is obligated to develop the total man. His having a body makes him an individual with material needs and desires. He is a self who relates with other selves in order to satisfy these material needs. In the quest for things that will satisfy his needs, he develops social relationships for he lives through-the-other and he is not only a self but a self –in community—a person who transcends materiality. Thus he develops interhuman relationships, the I-thou or the relationship of a neighbor. This relationship is not limited to the sharing of material things but the sharing of persons in a genuine dialogue.

Being as opposed to seeming. True interhuman relationship must transcend seemingness. It must go beyond the mask that we create to make us acceptable to others. We must be true to our being by relating to others with outmost sincerity and genuine presentation of who really we are. Our relationship must be characterized by openness and genuine acceptance of our nature and must be devoid of pretensions. It is only when we are true to each other that we are able to accept each other in an interhuman realm.

Person making present. A man must be open and willing to freely give himself in an interhuman relation. He must be “there” to the other. The “thereness” may not be physical. It may be empathy or sympathy with the other, or simply the willingness to be one with the other- a commitment of unity and mutual support.

Unfolding as opposed to imposition.  Our relationship with our fellowmen must be characterized by mutual unfolding of oneself. A free personal relation of one’s true being. A

mutual actualization of one’s true potentials. The interhuman relations should never and cannot be imposed because imposition is a mark of individuality and selfishness. We should not force the other to reveal himself to us or to become what we want them to become for they are the end in themselves and not the means. They are persons not things. The decision to reveal oneself must come from the person and not be imposed by others for interhuman relations are free interactions between and among persons who voluntarily choose to be with the other. What we could do is to provide the necessary climate for his unfolding.

Genuine Dialogue. This is the turning to the partner that takes place in all truth,that is turning of being. Genuine dialogue is the mutual sharing between persons. This happens when one person beyond the world of seeming centers into communication with the other being.

Summary of Specific Points of the Different Themes Presented

A human being is a social being and an inter-human being. He cannot live by himself for he depends on others for the things he needs in order to survive. He is not self sufficient thus he relates with the material world and with his fellowmen in his pursuit of the material things that will satisfy the needs of his body.

But a human being is not only a body. He is an embodied spirit and therefore his relationship is not limited only to the physical, bodily or social realm but also to the realm of the inter-human.

For a human being is primarily a person who becomes actuated through relations. Togetherness is a value that involves the existence of a human being not just a being-through-others but more so as a being-for-others

A human being exists through the other by using the products that are the fruit of the labors of others. However, he also works for others as manifested in the service oriented work like the teaching profession.

Thus, human beings relate to each one not only for material things but for the sharing of persons that ultimately actualizes his potentials. The interhuman relationship is achieved by transcending seemingness and entering into a genuine dialogue with the other through an I- thou relationship. This relationship is founded on the true nature of person, the willingness to make himself present and the unfolding of the true self in the mutual sharing of persons. It is through this relationship that he fulfills his nature and helps others fulfill theirs in a community of persons journeying towards their actualization.

Togetherness as a focal point of values: human existence has a historical character, we need others to enter into the human world of meaning and to make it our own, being together is a fundamental value which gives authentic fulfillment in our life.

Our existence is an existence for one another. We exist for others, we strive to be significant to others, and our existence is meaningful only if others accept it as meaningful.

The family system is the locus of interaction between the individual and the society. If development is to be a human development it must foster the integration of the family. Participative decision making process and a feedback mechanism is imperative.

According to Habermas , economic development cannot be divorced from moral development

Social formation or transformation cannot be brought about by class conflicts but by bi-dimensional learning process. Economic liberation is only a step to total liberation

Peace and order situation is built on freedom not on constraint; it is built on human

values which, is essential to moral quests and to politics. Truth, love, freedom and its practice

12. Thus, there is a need for equal and equitable distribution of wealth-Social Justice.

13    Social Justice was traditionally equated with legal justice- but what is legal may not necessarily be just, then justice was equated with the reasonable and understood now in the context of passion.

14.  Social Justice as a virtue means the habit whereby a man render to each one his due by a constant and perpetual will.

15.  As a value, Social Justice is properly the object of man’s intentional; feeling and is linked intimately with other values of truth, love and the dignity of person.

16.  Social Justice is legal justice guided by the spirit of love and the search for truth and should be side by side with the value of a person.

17.  Social Justice must become more important than commutative justice

Emerging Social Values Relevant to Education

1.  Personalization- The primacy of the human person. Man is a person and his crowning activity is love, which

     presupposes justice. The stress is towards the personalistic character of  education.

2.  Socialization – Man exists through the other and for others, The task of man is man himself and he becomes

actuated through the others. Personalization and socialization are but two sides of a single process in education, and in life.

3.  Existential Dialogue- presupposes an encounter, an invitation to authentic being existential presence, and

      existential union to create a community of persons.

4.   Authentic Being- Being as opposed to seeming, an unfolding as opposed to imposition. Education must bring

      about the true being of an individual person.

5.  The Human World- The world of man is a world of meaning. Man is a being in the world. Education must

      help man gives meaning to his world and the world of others. It must be in context of the students’ world.

6.  Convergence of worlds and synergy-man is a subjectivity incarnating itself in a converging world that

     defines his essence. The phenomenology of the we-experience is a reality that education must stress.

7.  Community- as a union of persons living an authentic existence with love, truth and justice. Schools must

      become communities where total human development is possible.

8.   Vigilance- critical, moral, political vigilance

 Implications to Education of the Themes Presented

1. Education must be based on the supremacy of the human person, thus its aims must be the total development of

    man in the context of his world.

2. Education must be a “we experience” where existential dialogues of authentic being, convergence of worlds

    and synergy are possible.

3. Education should not only be viewed as an investment of human capital or consumption but a meaningful

    becoming borne out of reasonable and responsible exercise of freedom.

4  Education is for personalization and socialization not only for life but for a meaningful life.

5. The teaching profession must really be promoted in the context of the ‘embodied spirit’. The flight of teachers

     in terms of economic, political, social and academic aspects must be addressed. Make teachers motivated    

     motivators.

6.     The affective and the emotional aspects must be developed together with the rational aspect of man. The student must be viewed as a totality and subject fields are simply part of this totality.

 

1. A systematic process of identifying and using different tactics or means to broaden the possibilities of attaining the desired situation in the future

A. Strategic thinking                  B. Creative thinking       C. Critical thinking      D. Logical thinking

2. The recognition of the need to be true to one’s own thinking; to be consistent in the intellectual standards one applies

A. Courage      B. Humility         C.  Faith in reason      D. Integrity

3. It is the process of putting ideas or materials together to create a meaningful pattern or structure that did not previously exist.

A. Remembering           B. Translation               C. Analysis       D.  Synthesis.

4. This thought process includes the recall or recognition of information previously encountered, such as facts, concepts, or generalizations.

A. Remembering           B. Translation               C. Analysis       D.  Synthesis.

5. Changing information from one form to another.

A. Remembering           B. Translation               C. Analysis       D.  Synthesis.

6. The thought process used in discovering relationships between two or more facts, concepts or generalizations. It is the kind of thinking a person uses when he makes comparisons or draws conclusions

A. Evaluation                B. Interpretation.          C. Application D. Synthesis.

7. This thought process is a kind of thinking that uses what one learns in the classroom to one’s life outside school.

A. Evaluation                B. Interpretation.          C. Application D. Synthesis

8. Man as an embodied spirit means

1. Man is a body and soul

B.      Man is a rational animal

C.      Man is a totality, unique core or center, source, wellspring of initiative and meaning

D.     Man is subjective

9. Man as an embodied spirit implies that education should

1. develop the intellect/ mind

B.     develop man’s individuality

C.     develop essential physical and intellectual skills

D.     develop the total person

10. Human beings are living in a human world implies that

1. education must help man give meaning to his world and the world of others

B.     education must develop skills to survive in this world

C.     education must be relevant to this world

D.     education must be in the context of societal needs

11. The Philosophical study of the essence and nature of man

A. Rational Psychology     

B. Philosophy of Human Person   

C. Epistemology                

D. Social Philosophy

12. The branch of philosophy that studies the morality of human acts

1. Aesthetics         B. Cosmology              C. Ethics          D. Theodicy

13. This is the philosophical study of human knowledge and the criteria of truth.

1. Axiology           B . Epistemology          C . Logic          D . Metaphysics

14. .This contemporary philosophical theme in education contends that education must involve in its processes the total human being-his subjectivity, the rational, the material and the emotional aspect for man is a unity and not a duality.

A.         Genuine dialogue

B.                Man as a being in the world

C.                 Man as an embodied spirit

D.                 The socius and the interhuman being

15. This emerging social value in education stresses that a person exists through the other and for others for she/he becomes actuated through relations

A. Existential dialogue   B. Personalization    C. Socialization     D. Vigilance

16. To what particular concept must education be based according to contemporary philosophy?

A.                   Existential dialogue

B.                 Social change

C.                 Supremacy of the human person

D.                 Synergy

17.  This emerging social value in education stresses the importance of the “we-experience” and the converging of worlds

A.     Authentic being

B.   Existential dialogue

C.   Personalization

D.   Synergy

18. The consideration of the application and importance of one’s thoughts.

A. SPECIFIC              B. SIGNIFICANT                   C. RELEVANT                       D. FAIR.

19. The importance, noteworthiness and momentousness of one’s thoughts and actions.

A. SPECIFIC              B. SIGNIFICANT                   C. RELEVANT                       D. FAIR.

20.  The correctness in the reasoning and thinking processes.

A. CLEAR                   B. LOGICAL                           C. COMPLETE                       D. BROAD

21. The intellectual standard of being extensive and expansive in one’s thought and being open to other points of view.

A. CLEAR                   B. LOGICAL                           C.COMPLETE                        D. BROAD

22. The Social Philosophy that contends that the role of government is to protect us from outside invaders and domestic criminals who would otherwise violate our rights, but otherwise to leave us alone

A. Liberalism    B. Libertarianism                     C. Communitarianism    D. Socialism

23.. The standard of fullness, wholeness and absoluteness

A. CLEAR                   B. LOGICAL                           C. COMPLETE                       D. BROAD

24. The exactness, meticulousness and correctness of one’s thoughts.

A. CLEAR                   B. LOGICAL                           C. PLAUSIBLE.                      D. PRECISE.

25. It is the thought process a person uses in determining how something is organized. Much like interpretation but one is more aware of the steps to follow to reach a solution to a problem.

A. Remembering           B. Translation                           C. Analysis                               D.  Synthesis.

 

1. What branch of Philosophy is closely related to education because it is concerned with human

knowledge in general and the criteria of truth?

A. Metaphysics                  B. Logic            C. Epistemology          D. Ethics

2. According to Elder and Paul this universal intellectual standard employs the consideration of other

points of view in the intellectual pursuit.

A. Logic                 B.  Breadth                   C. Depth          D. Precision

3.  It is a process of breaking down of philosophical ideas, questions and theories to their component

      parts in order to comprehend the nature of the parts in relation to other parts and to the whole

A. Philosophical analysis           B. critical thinking         C. logical thinking         D.  strategic thinking

4. A process that values suspended judgment based on the result of a logical search and the resolutions

     of problems which results into wise decisions and actions

A. Philosophical analysis           B. critical thinking         C. logical thinking         D.  strategic thinking

5. A systematic process of identifying and using different tactics or means to broaden the possibilities of  

    attaining the desired situation in the future

             A. Philosophical analysis          B. critical thinking         C. logical thinking         D.  strategic thinking

6. Being inquisitive and expressing interest in one’s work. The eagerness to know

A. Discipline                 B. Curiosity                  C. Empathy                  D. Risk taker

7. The training of the mind and character so that one’s life will be in accordance with rules.

A. Discipline                 B. Curiosity                  C. Empathy                  D. Risk taking

8. Having a consciousness of the need to imaginatively put one self in the place of others in order to

    genuinely understand them

A. Discipline                 B. Curiosity                  C. Empathy                  D. Risk taking

9. The courage to try reasonable alternatives in the face of danger or loss.

            A. Discipline                 B. Curiosity                  C. Empathy                  D. Risk taking

10. The quality of teachers of having self-autonomy.

A. Courage                  B..Self-determination                C. Confidence              D.Fairness.

11.  The state of being just, equal and evenhanded

A. Courage                  B..Self-determination                C Confidence               D.Fairness.

12. Having a feeling of hope on which one relies. Being in a state of trust and exhibiting reasonable

reliance on others

            A. Courage                  B..Self-determination                C Confidence               D.Fairness.

13. Having a consciousness of the need to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs or viewpoints toward which we have strong negative emotions and to which we have not given a serious hearing

A. Courage                  B..Self-determination                C. Confidence              D.Fairness.

14. Originality, ingenuity and resourcefulness in the performance of tasks

            A. Responsibility           B.  Creativity                C. Perseverance           D.Integrity.

15.  Recognition of the need to be true to one’s own thinking and to be consistent in the intellectual standards one applies

            A. Responsibility           B.  Creativity                C. Perseverance           D. Integrity

16. Having a consciousness of the need to use intellectual insights and truths in spite of difficulties, obstacles, and frustrations; firm adherence to rational principles despite the irrational opposition of others.

            A. Responsibility           B.  Creativity                C. Perseverance           D. Integrity

17.  Being conscientious, accountable and dependable in the performance of tasks

            A. Responsibility           B.  Creativity                C. Perseverance           D.  Integrity

18.  Confidence that, in the long run, one’s own higher interest and those of humankind at large will be best served by giving the freest play to reason

            A. Humility                   B. Responsibility           C.  Faith in Reason       D. Integrity

19.  Having a consciousness of the limits of one’s knowledge, including sensitivity to circumstances in which one’s native egocentrism is likely to function self-deceptively

A. Humility                   B. Responsibility           C.  Faith in Reason       D. Integrity

20.   The standard of being correct, truthful and precise.

A. ADEQUATE.          B. ACCURATE           C. DEEP          D. CONSISTENT

21. The standard of sufficiency, ampleness and satisfactoriness in relation to the purpose.

.           A. ADEQUATE.          B. ACCURATE           C. DEEP          D. CONSISTENT

22. The unswerving, regularity, dependability and unfailing effort to comprehend the truth and achieve the purpose.

A. ADEQUATE.          B. ACCURATE           C. DEEP          D. CONSISTENT

23. It is characterized by the profundity, intensity and strength of one’s thinking.

A. ADEQUATE.          B. ACCURATE           C. DEEP          D. CONSISTENT

24. A Social Philosophy that is a cross between libertarianism and socialism. Its most famous line is "Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others."

 A. Liberalism  B. Libertarianism                     C. Communitarianism    D. Socialism

25. The science and art of investigating reality to its deepest causes.

            A. Philosophy               B. Medicine     C. Teaching                  D. Radiology

Sources:

Wikipedia

Lecture Notes

Edulogication by M.M. Nael

Logic for Nursing Students and Professionals by Rivas & Nael, Rex Bookstore

Key to Correction

Philosophical Analysis

Part II

1.     A

2.     D

3.     D

4.     A

5.     B

6.     B

7.     C

8.     D

9.     D

10.                         A

11.                         B

12.                         C

13.                         B

14.                         C

15.                         B

16.                         C

17.                         D

18.                         B

19.                         C

20.                         B

21.                         D

22.                         B

23.                         C

24.                         D

25.                         C

Part III

1.     C

2.     B

3.     A

4.     B

5.     D

6.     B

7.     A

8.     C

9.     D

10.                         B

11.                         D

12.                         C

13.                         D

14.                         B

15.                         D

16.                         C

17.                         A

18.                         C

19.                         A

20.                         B

21.                         A

22.                         D

23.                         C

     24. A

     25. A